邢唷��>� ��欹�q �汗bjbjt+t+ JAA嚨2��]xxxxxxx��8�<��L�8��) ) ) $��n7x) � |) ) ) 7�xx��8��) �x�x��xxxx) ��?:U�xx��l@朜ns��SESSION A (Semi-) Automatic Poetry On this page we are going to begin to explore the idea of grammatical word class (in particular nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs) by producing some (semi-) automatic poetry. You will create your own poem by choosing words from lists of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs and dropping them into an overall grammatical structure. This will begin to sensitise you to the idea of word class before we go on to look at it in more analytical detail. Below is a grammatical skeleton based on an English translation of a Japanese poem written in the Tanka form. [Note: Although the original Japanese has a rigid syllable structure, the English translation does not mimic it (basically because English words tend to have less syllables than Japanese words)]. ONLINE TASK Introducing word classess This page introduces you to the grammatical classes which words belong to and how to spot and define them. It thus helps to explain what you were doing intuitively when you chose from the different open-class word lists (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs) to create poems on the (semi-)automatic poetry page. Note: The grammatical description which we use on this course is based on the approach in English Grammar for Today by G. Leech, R. Hoogenraad and M. Deuchar (Macmillan 1982). For more detail, see chapter 3, 慦ords�. Another good resource is the 慦ord Classes� section of the University College London Internet Grammar of English. We all have pretty good intuitions about the basic word class which lots of words come from, even if they have the possibility of shifting from one word class to another (something which will have become clear in the lists of words on the (semi-)automatic poetry page). So, for example, 憈able� can be a noun or a verb, but most English speakers will assume that at base it is a noun and that the verb is derived from the noun, not the other way round. Dictionary entries effectively encode the intuitions we have about what word classes basically belong to. The first entry will be the one for what is the basic word class form and derived forms will come later in the dictionary display. Test your intuitions on the following words. What is the most basic word class for each of the following words?: ONLINE TASK More on word classess Open Class (Lexical) Words and Closed Class (Grammatical) Words We can make a basic distinction between open class (lexical) and closed class words: PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=distinction between open class (lexical) and closed class words"INCLUDEPICTURE \d \z "../graphics/openclass.gif" If we take a sentence like: The mouse dribbled over its cheese. We know that it contains 6 words. But these 6 words belong to two different general types. 慣he�, 憃ver� and 慽ts� are words which indicate grammatical relations mainly, and which belong to small closed classes. This is why words like this are called grammatical, or closed-class words. The definite article 憈he� is one of only two articles in English, the other one being the indefinite article 慳�, and 慽ts� is one of a set of seven possessive pronouns. The word 憃ver� is a preposition, and although there are more than 50 prepositions in English, the set is still very restricted when compared with the thousands of words which constitute the set of nouns in English. 慚ouse� (NOUN), 慸ribbled� (VERB) and 慶heese� (NOUN) are members of word classes which are much larger, and indeed are open. You can invent a new noun or verb relatively easily if you feel so inclined, but it is almost impossible to introduce a new pronoun or preposition into English. Open class words are sometimes called lexical or lexically full words, as they carry more 憆eferential� meaning than the grammatical words. ADJECTIVE and ADVERB are also open word classes. There are thousands of words in each of the open class sets. Try inventing some new words, giving them definitions and comparing them with ours ONLINE TASK Defining Open Class Words When defining grammatical categories linguists use three main criteria: meaning, internal form and function (how the category involved functions in the particular grammatical context in which it occurs). The criterion of meaning is the easiest to understand, but as we shall see when we look at nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, it is the least reliable criterion. The most reliable is the criterion of function: Have a look at the following links for a description of the different (open) word classes: Nouns (a) Meaning Nouns are often defined for young children as 憂aming words� because they refer to concrete objects in the outside world. Here, then, is our noun, which, for fun, we can call Mr Solid: ONLINE ANIMATION The problem with the meaning definition, though, is that there are lots of nouns which refer not to concrete things but abstractions (e.g. 憀ove�, 慼appiness�), processes (e.g. 憈he laughing�, 慳 twinkling�) and so on. (b) Internal Form Plural morphemes In English many nouns can be made plural by the addition of a plural ending (e.g. 慶ats�, 慸ogs�, 慼orses�). This kind of ending is an example of one of the 慴uilding blocks� called morphemes which make up words. Nouns that can be made into plurals are usually called count nouns, because you can 慶ount� them: catone cattwo catsdogone dogtwo dogshorseone horsetwo horsesoxone oxthree oxen But there are many nouns which are not countable. These are usually called uncountable or mass nouns: furniture*one furniture*two furnituresgrief*one grief*two griefs So this internal-form property of nouns is also not completely reliable. Other 憂ouny� endings There are other internal form markers which come at the end of some nouns, for example: StationJunctionSublimationPartition These various �-ion� endings are a reflection (there抯 another one!) of the fact that these words were borrowed into English from Latin. But not very many nouns in English have such endings. There are also morphemes which can be added to words from other open word classes to turn them into nouns, for example: bomdard(verb)PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=arrow pointing right"INCLUDEPICTURE \d "../images/arrowblue.gif"bomdardment(noun) prefer(verb) PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=arrow pointing right"INCLUDEPICTURE \d "../images/arrowblue.gif"preference(noun) false(verb) PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=arrow pointing right"INCLUDEPICTURE \d "../images/arrowblue.gif"faslehood(noun) kind(verb) PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=arrow pointing right"INCLUDEPICTURE \d "../images/arrowblue.gif"kindness(noun) But again, many nouns do not have such 憂ouny� endings (e.g. 慴ook�, 憄en�), and some endings can end words belonging to different word classes (so 慶utting�, for example, with its �-ing� ending, can be a noun, a verb or an adjective in different sentential contexts). (c) Function Although it is probably the most difficult of the three defining criteria to come to terms with, the most reliable way to spot a noun is in relation to its function. So, if it is the head of a noun phrase (e.g. 憈he boy�, 慳 girl�, 慳 good book�, 'the man who I met') it must be a noun by virtue of its surrounding grammatical context. Hence in 慳 press cutting� the word 慶utting�, which we have just seen to be formally ambiguous, must be a noun. Nouns can also modify other nouns inside noun phrases, in which case they normally have to occur closer to the head noun than the other modifiers: An enormous grey stone wall Although the function criterion is the most reliable by far, when in doubt the most sensible thing is to use all three criteria (form, meaning and function) in combination. Adjectives (a) Meaning Adjectives prototypically 憆efer� to the properties of nouns. They are often described to small children as 慸escribing words�. Let抯 take our fun noun, Mr Solid, and apply different adjectives to him. Here he is: ONLINE ANIMATION The difficulty with defining adjectives as 憆eferring� to properties of nouns is that there are plenty of adjectives which do not fit the specification. For example, some express value judgements on the part of a speaker or writer (e.g. 慹xcellent�, 慳wful�), some seem to be a mixture of property and value (e.g. 慻raceful�, 慼andsome�) and some adjectival 憄roperties� are not very property-like (e.g. 慽neffable�, 慽nexorable�). (b) Internal Form It is possible to compare adjectives: that is to produce comparative and superlative versions of them by (a) adding comparative/superlative morphological endings (�-er� and �-est�) or (b) inserting comparative/superlative words (憁ore�, 憁ost�) in front of them: AdjectiveComparativeSuperlativeredRedderreddestbeautifulmore beautifulmost beautiful But not all adjectives can be compared. �*More male�, �*maler�, �*most male� and �*malest� sound very odd for example. This is because 憁ale� is a non-gradable adjective. It is easier to compare HYPERLINK "../glossary.htm" \l "gradableadjective"gradable adjectives (like 慼appy�) than HYPERLINK "../glossary.htm" \l "nongradableadjective"non-gradable ones. Other 慳djectival� endings Many adjectives (but by no means all) end in �-y� (e.g. 慼appy�, 憆ain�). And many nouns can be changed into adjectives by adding �-y�. Other suffixes which do a similar job are �-ous� (慻enerous�) and �-al�(慶onical�): NounAdjectiverainrainywoodwoodypomppompousglorygloriousfrontfrontalsuicidesuicidal But, of course, there are plenty of adjectives which do not have 'adjective endings' (e.g. 'red', 'green'). (c) Function Functionally, adjectives typically have two roles: 1. They act as pre-modifers to the head nouns of noun phrases: a big cara red tricycle When they act as pre-modifiers in this way, they are normally positioned in between the determiner and noun modifier slots in the noun phrase: a big estate car a red plastic tricycle 2. They can be the headwords of adjective phrases: My teachers are most incredibly charming As we noted when looking at nouns, many words can be ambiguous with respect to word class. But the ambiguities can usually be resolved if we consider the functional context which the word is related to. So, 憆ed� can be a noun or a verb, but in 慳 penny red� it is a noun and in 慳 red stamp� it is an adjective. Verbs (a) Meaning Verbs are often described as 慸oing words�, and it is certainly true that they prototypically 憆efer� to actions and processes (e.g. 憆un�, 慼ammer�, 慹scape, 憃oze�, 憈rickle�). So, we could invent a character to contrast with Mr Solid, our noun, who we might call 慚r Shift�. ONLINE ANIMATION But meaning is again rather unreliable as a way of defining verbs. The most common verbs in English, 慽s� (the verb 憈o be�) and 慼ave� do not describe actions or processes, and the same can be said of (a) 憀inking� verbs like 慴ecome�, and 憇eem� and (b) psychological verbs like 慴elieve� and 憇ee� as well as stative verbs like 憇tand� and 憆emain�. (b) Internal Form 1. In their finite form verbs are marked for tense. Hence the present tense verb 憈alk� can be converted to the past tense by adding the �-ed� morpheme (憈alked�). The other tense markers in English are supplied by auxiliary verbs, not morphological suffixes (cf. 慼ad talked�). 2. Verbs can also be marked for person concord with the subject of a sentence, although in English (unlike many other languages) distinctive person markings are now restricted to third person present tense concord: PresentPastI talkI talkedyou talkyou talkedhe/she/it talkshe/she/it talkedwe talkwe talkedyou talkyou talkedthey talkthey talked 3. Finally, verbs can carry markings in relation to what is usually called 慳spect�. Aspect has to do with whether an action is perceived as being something which happens in a moment (is punctual) or is spread over a longer period of time (is continuous). Compare: PunctualContinuousPast tenseHe tapped his teethHe was tapping his teethPresent tenseHe taps his teethHe is tapping his teeth(c) Function Verbs always function inside verb phrases, either as the main (head) verb, or as an auxiliary to it, as in: has been drinking might have been being drinking In both these cases, 慸rinking� is the main (head) verb and the other words are all auxiliary verbs of different kinds. The participial forms (those ending in �-ing�, �-ed� or �-en�) are ambiguous formally between verbs and adjectives, but their differing functions in context remove the ambiguity: VerbAdjectivehas been drinkinga drinking cupwas presseda pressed manAdverbs (a) Meaning If the prototypical role for adjectives is to modify nouns, the prototypical role for adverbs is to 憁odify� or specify the circumstances under which verbs operate. In the following sentence, the adverbs tell us when, where and how the sun shone. Yesterdaythe sun shoneBrightlyheretimeMannerplaceadverbAdverbadverb So we could say that adverbs tie Mr Shift down ... press "play" to see what we mean: ONLINE ANIMATION (b) Internal Form Like adjectives, some adverbs compare: AdverbComparativeSuperlativequicklyquicklierquickliestquicklymore quicklymost quickly Rather unhelpfully, the comparative and superlative markers are the same for the adverbs as they are for the adjectives! (c) Function Adverbs can function as the head of an adverb phrase (憊ery quickly�, 憉nbelievably slowly�) They can also modify adjectives (憊ery quick�, 憉nbelievably slow�) and other adverbs (憊ery quickly�, 憉nbelievably slowly�). d) Adverb mobility Another help in spotting adverbs is the fact that they are more mobile in sentences and clauses than the other word classes. This is especially true of manner adverbs. Once again, press "play" to see what we mean: ONLINE ANIMATION Note that, although the manner adverb 憅uickly� can be positioned at the beginning or end of this sentence, in between the subject (慡he�) and verb (慳te�) and also in between the verb and the object (憈he tutor), it is still the case that some positions are more natural than others. The most typical place for a manner adverb to come is at the very end of a sentence or clause. And to place a manner adverb in between the verb and the object, although just about possible, feels much less natural than the other three positions. There are two ways in English to change words from one word-class to another: 1. Attach a derivational affix to the word concerned e.g.: bitbitty(noun)(adjective)confineconfinement(verb)(noun) 2. Leave the internal structure of the word alone, but instead change the surrounding grammatical context to force a change of word class. Compare: I hit the table. The batter produced a really big hit. In the first sentence 慼it' is a verb, and in the second a noun. This kind of word-class change is sometimes called 慺unctional conversion� because the grammatical function of the word is changed without any alteration to its internal form. Many word class-shifts have been in the language for a long time and so have become normalised. So, for example, the use of the word 憈able� as a verb would not be felt to be unusual at all. And some new uses of words would not necessarily feel very unusual at all. So, if we invent the adjective 慴ooky�, for example (as in 慔e is a booky sort of person�), although the word may be a new addition to the list of adjectives in English it does not seem very strange, because it is easy to assign a sensible meaning to it (a 慴ooky sort of person� could be someone who owns a lot of books, is very interested in books etc., depending on the context that the phrase occurs in). Note, though, that some word-class changes are more peculiar. The asterisked items below seem much more odd than 慴ooky�: infer*infermentcure*curementI ate the table*At lunch I had a really good ate. Inventive writers often make words shift from one word class to another for the first time and sometimes the new use will seem very unusual and striking, in which case it often turns out to be significant in terms of textual interpretation. We explore this in more depth in the page which looks at changing word class in this topic session and also in the pages which explore the idea of linguistic deviation in Topic 3 of the course, Patterns, Deviation, Style and Meaning. In other words, once we know about word classes in analytical terms we can use that knowledge to explain how writers can manipulate word choices for stylistic effect. Manipulating word classess This section looks at how the choice of particular word classes can affect style and/or meaning. Unusual densities or patterns of particular word classes can have effects on style and meaning. Ellegard (1978) has published a set of average frequencies for written English based on the Brown corpus of American English. In the following sections we refer to his average frequencies for nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs for comparative purposes. Nouny styles The following passage is an extract from Lucky抯 speech in Samuel Beckett抯 famous play, Waiting for Godot. Lucky is a menial servant/slave who has remained mute up until this speech. Then he produces a long, apparently erudite but rather bizarre and incoherent monologue about the existence of God, the development of humankind and its place in the universe. The extract below comes about half-way through a speech of about 650 words in length. We have highlighted each of the nouns in the passage: . . . and concurrently simultaneously what is more for reasons unknown in spite of the strides of physical culture the practice of sports such as tennis football running cycling swimming flying floating riding gliding conating camogie skating tennis of all kinds dying flying sports of all sorts autumn summer winter winter tennis of all kinds hockey of all sorts penicillin and succedanea in a word I resume and concurrently simultaneously for reasons unknown to shrink and dwindle in spite of the tennis I resume flying gliding golf over nine and eighteen holes tennis of all sorts in a word for reasons unknown in Feckham Peckham Fulham Clapham . . . (Samuel Beckett, Waiting for Godot, pp. 43-4) Comments about meaning and effect Although quite a lot of the words which Lucky uses are rather erudite (e.g. 慶oncurrently�, 憇imultaneously�, 憇uccedanea� [which means 憇ubstitutes抅), something which correlates with the apparently erudite references to scholarly writing elsewhere in the monologue, his speech appears to be very incoherent. This is partly because of a lack of punctuation in the entire speech and the fact that, in spite of locally understandable grammatical structures, the structures flow into one another and are often uncompleted. At this point in the speech Lucky appears to be working towards an overall argument with the structure 慖n spite of sports, Y is the case�. But we never get to Y. Instead, we seem to get stuck in various lists to do with sport, periods of the year and places in or near London. It is thus as if Lucky is a highly educated and intelligent person who is trying to construct an important philosophical argument but who is continually frustrated by an inability to control the lexical and grammatical choices needed to embody that argument, rather like someone who has had a stroke resulting in a language disorder. Analytical comments The first thing to notice is that of the 105 words in the above extract around 46% of them are nouns. The equivalent figure in Ellegard抯 norm for written English is 27%. The fact that there are almost twice the number of nouns than normal in the extract is a reflection of the paucity of grammatical structure (and therefore the paucity of overall cognitive sense), something which is seen most clearly in the various lists of sports which occur. The very high density of nouns gives the sense of talk that is not really going anywhere. The lack of overall grammatical structure and the various lists of nouns also help us to notice (a) the repetitions (e.g. 憃f all sorts� 憃f all kinds�, 憇ports�, 憈ennis�, 慺lying�, 慻liding�, 憌inter�) and (b) the fact that many adjacent words seem to be chosen because of phonemic similarity. For example, the longest noun list has a series of names of sports which all end in �-ing� (慶ycling swimming flying floating riding gliding conating�), and the place names at the end of the extract Feckham Peckham Fulham Clapham�) all end in �-ham�. We thus get the sense of someone who wants to give examples but then gets stuck in them because of their internal similarity and can抰 get out. The matter is made even worse because the lists also contain the occasional 憂onsense� term. For example, there is no sport called 慶onating� and there is no place called 慒eckham�. A "nouny" task Below is a short extract from James Joyce抯 PRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=More about James Joyce"Ulysses which describes an argument which takes place among a number of important personages from various countries who have come as delegates to watch a public execution in Dublin. What can you say about the nouns in the second sentence of the extract? After you have made your comments, compare them with ours. An animated altercation (in which all took part) ensued . . . as to whether the eighth or the ninth of March was the correct date of the birth of Ireland抯 patron saint. In the course of the argument cannonballs, scimitars, boomerangs, blunderbusses, stinkpots, meatchoppers, umbrellas, catapaults, knuckledusters, sandbags, lumps of pig iron were resorted to and blows were freely exchanged. The baby policeman, Constable MacFadden, summoned by special courier from Booterstown, quickly restored order and with lightning promptitude proposed the seventeenth of the month as a solution equally honourable for both contending parties. The readywitted ninefooter抯 suggestion at once appealed to all and was unanimously accepted. (James Joyce, Ulysses, p. 295) Verby styles Consider the extract below, from a magazine for young women. Its style is dominated by the verbs, in spite of the fact that the overall proportion of verbs in the passage is lower (9.6%) than the Ellegard average (12.1%). We have highlighted the verbs for you, using a different colour Styletips Why don't you ...Twist and wrap the corners of a plain white shirt around your waist for a crossover effect ...Get out your sequin party skirt and team it with a day jacket - a naval-style blazer say - for a surprisingly sophisticated evening look ...Forget about colour rules - mix turquoise with orange and green ...Dash into your nearest haberdashery department in search of fabulous buttons ... Wear two pairs of opaque tights for maximum matt effect ... (Cosmopolitan, February 1991) Comments about meaning and effect In spite of the fact that the article is talking about different possible things to wear, in terms of effect, it appears to be presenting fashion choice for its readers as a highly dynamic activity. This article gives choosing what to wear an image which corresponds to the self-image of the group being aimed at. Analytical comments Most of the verbs chosen are dynamic (e.g. 憈wist�, 憌rap�, 憁ix�, 慸ash�) and/or transitive (e.g. 憈wist�, 憌rap�, 憁ix�, 憌ear�) and, as a consequence, the other verbs which pattern with them tend to take on similar qualities by association. Thus 憈eam� and 憌ear� take on dynamic qualities not normally associated with them. The graphological effect of lineation forces the verbs to the left-hand edge of the text, which also helps to make the reader focus on them rather more than the other words in the text. This effect is called HYPERLINK "../glossary.htm" \l "foregrounding"foregrounding, something which we explore in more depth in Topic 3 in this course. PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=smiley" A "verby" task Below is an extract from a novel. Write down what effects you associate with the writing and what part the verb choice plays in it. Then compare your findings with ours. [Context: The extract below is from near the beginning of a novel about a man who is drowning. He has apparently managed to cling to a piece of rock and is struggling not to be swept off it by the sea. In fact, at the end of the novel, we discover that his struggles to stay alive have all been a terrible fantasy. He drowned fairly quickly (he never managed to get his sea boots off) and his 憇truggle for survival� was a hallucination in his dying moments, induced in his dying brain by the sensation it registered as his tongue rubbed against his teeth.] We have numbered the sentences and highlighted the verbs for ease of reference. (1) His legs kicked and swung sideways. (2) His head ground against rock and turned. He scrabbled in the white water with both hands and heaved himself up. (3) He felt the too-smooth wetness running on his face and the brilliant jab of pain at the corner of his right eye. (4) He spat and snarled. (5) He glimpsed the trenches with their thick layers of dirty white, their trapped inches of solution, a gull slipping away over a green sea. (6) Then he was forcing himself forward. (7) He fell into the next trench, hauled himself over the wall, saw a jumble of broken rock, slid and stumbled. (8) He was going down hill and he fell part of the way. (William GoldingPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=More about William Golding", Pincher Martin, p. 42) A style with lots of adjectives Below is a passage from Hotel du Lac by Anita Brookner Consider the effects of the adjectives in the extract (which we have highlighted for you) and then compare your findings with ours. The Hotel du Lac (Famille Huber) was a stolid and dignified building, a house of repute, a traditional establishment, used to welcoming the prudent, the well-to-do, the retired, the self-effacing, the respected patrons of an earlier era of tourism. It had made little effort to smarten itself up for the passing trade which it had always despised. Its furnishings, although austere, were of excellent quality, its linen spotless, its service impeccable. (Anita Brookner, Hotel du Lac, p 13) A style with lots of adverbs It is quite difficult to find a text with lots of adverbs in it. The adverb is the least frequent and most optional, grammatically, of the four major word classes. So we have made one up. Now the party was noisily in full swing. Many students were singing raucously. Others lurched drunkenly here and there. Then, suddenly, there was a horrifyingly large sucking noise outside. Slowly and seemingly inexorably the door creaked open, and a gigantically large slug oozed lubriciously into the room, greedily, and gratefully, engulfing undergraduates as it tried to join in the disappearing fun. Creativity and word class changes - In English almost any noun can be verbed! English is a language where it is easy for us to shift words creatively from one grammatical word class to another, as the above sub-heading makes clear. We noticed previously (HYPERLINK "3styletips.htm"Manipulating word classes) that writers can produce special meanings and effects by choosing particular word classes more often than usual. But they can also create interesting local effects by making unusual word class choices in texts. The first set of examples use productive morphological affixes as well as overall grammatical context to signal changes in word class. Then we have a look at word-class changes without any affixation (functional conversion). ONLINE TASK Word class changes: affixation Below is something said by the daughter (three years old at the time) of Greg Myers, an academic in the Department of Linguistics and Modern English Language at 向日葵视频. She was clearly cross when she said it!: I'm not joking, I'm realing. This is the kind of remark which parents remember with amusement, and proudly embarrass their children with for the rest of their lives. The child is being very inventive, in this case turning the adjective 憆eal� into an intransitive verb, and saying the rough equivalent of 慖 really mean this� in a way which forces a vivid opposition between the two clauses of her sentence. The inventiveness is what makes what is said both striking and memorable. However, the fact that 憆eal� is not a verb in English also explains the amusement. The child had mastered the how to form present participles of verbs but had not yet internalised completely which words normally function as verbs. When very young children, or foreign learners of English, do things like this they are usually called mistakes. But if people acknowledged to be good writers do the same sort of thing they are praised for their inventive use of language! Below, for example is how a journalist in The Guardian described how Margaret Thatcher, the first woman Prime Minister of the UK and a very formidable woman (who was known for her anti-European Union views and who usually carried a fairly large handbag) got her own way in an argument in a meeting of European heads of state: She handbagged her European counterparts. Here the noun 慼andbag� is changed into a transitive verb, which therefore suggests dynamic and purposeful action from Mrs Thatcher towards her colleagues. And given the combative context of the meeting, it leads to the image of Mrs Thatcher hitting her opponents in the argument over the head with her handbag, much in the way that old ladies who lose their tempers are often humorously portrayed in cartoons and films. The humour then comes about because of the ludicrous contrast between the sort of image suggested above and the grand, serious and formal character that we would expect meetings among heads of state to have. The examples below come from a novel about India. The idea of making mixing materials to make chutney is being used as a metaphor for the social mixing that is India: What is required for chutnification? Raw materials, obviously -- fruit vegetables, fish, vinegar, spices ... Daily visits from Koli women ... But also: eyes blue as ice, which are undeceived by the superficial blandishments of fruit -- which can see corruption beneath citrus-skin; fingers which, with featheriest touch, can probe the secret inconstant hearts of green tomatoes . . . (Salman RushdiePRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=More about Salman Rushdie", Midnight's Children, p.460) ONLINE TASK Word class changes without affixation - functional conversion 慒unctional conversion� is usually used to describe the situation where a change in word class is not as a result of affixation, and is only signalled by its overall grammatical context, as in: I decided to toothbrush my way into the bathroom. Here 憈oothbrush� is used not as a noun but as a verb, and it suggests the image of someone trying to enter the bathroom while brushing his or her teeth, probably at the expense of someone else who is already in the bathroom or about to go it. Functional Conversion Task 1 - ONLINE TASK Functional Conversion Task 2 - ONLINE TASK In his poem 慣he Windhover� Gerard Manley Hopkins describes with admiration the extraordinary abilities of the bird in flight. Why is the use of the word 慳chieve� so striking in line 8 of the extract below and what effects does it have? We also have an audio version of the poem. To Christ our Lord I caught this morning morning抯 minion, king-dom of daylight抯 dauphin, dapple-dawn-drawn Falcon, in his ridingOf the rolling level underneath him steady air, and stridingHigh there, how he rung upon the rein of a wimpling wing In his ecstasy! then off, off forth on swing,As a skate抯 heel sweeps smooth on a bow-bend: the hurl and glidingRebuffed the big wind. My heart in hidingStirred for a bird, - the achieve of, the mastery of the thing! (Gerard Manley Hopkins, 慣he Windhover�) New words for old So far in this session we have examined how words can be shifted from one word class to another for specific effects. In a way, turning a verb like 慳chieve� into a noun, as happens in 慣he Windhover� by Gerard Manley Hopkins, creates a new word, the noun 慳chieve�. But there are lots of other ways of creating new words, or neologisms, as they are known more technically. Below is a poem written by someone while doing this course as a student, Eric Dixon. Take each of the highlighted words in turn and work out (a) how the neologism is created and (b) what effect(s) you think Dixon is trying to create with the new word. Then, after you have given your reasons, click on the highlighted word (listed at the right of the poem) to compare your analysis with ours. NeologisingI like neologisms.You can compress old words togetherinto one snugcompactunit.Or you can forcean alternative understanding of an old wordby using it in a different toothbrush.In addition, you can create brand new words,which have a high degree of meaningocity --excelling in their signifinesspregnanticative gistisms,and inventorised purnotation.Or, on the other hand, you cancreate words which are totallythrungefuttock. Eric Dixon ONLINE TASK Ways to make new words So far in this session we have seen the following ways of making new words: Deriving new grammatical forms, using derivational affixes, as in Ted Hughes' 'bekittenings'; Functional conversion (as in Hopkins's 'the achieve of, the mastery of the thing'); Running more than one word together to make one (as in 'snugcompactunit'); Using blends of 'illegal' forms (as in 'purnotation'); Making up words that look, or sound like existing words (as in 'thrungefuttock'). But these are only some of the myriad ways in which people invent new words. Here are some more: Take two existing words and run them together (e.g. 'The forgettle', the name used to refer in an advertising slogan to the Russell Hobbs kettle, the first one which switched itself off - this is a lexical blend of the words 'forget' and 'kettle', producing a word which meant 'the forget kettle' - the kettle you could forget about, as it would not carry on boiling if you didn't switch it off). Use the name of the person who spotted or invented the object concerned. For example, the hoover, the most common word meaning 'vacuum cleaner', or 'crap', the semi-rude synonym for 'defecate' or 'rubbish', which derives from the name of the man who invented the first flushable toilet, Thomas Crapper. Use a derivational form with a proper name (e.g. 'Thatcherism', 'Reaganism'). Invent your own words here! Why not have a go at inventing your own word and giving it a humorous definition? To get you going, here are a couple borrowed from page 34 of David Crystal's Language Play: Elaversion: Avoiding eye contact with other people in an elevator or lift. Hicgap: The time that elapses between your hiccups going away and your noticing that they have. Brian Walker's suggestions: Loitery = a loitery of people. A group of people hanging around a National Lottery stand, usually on a double rollover week, deliberating over their chosen numbers, trying to remember the number of the month their cat was born on, obstructing your progress in or out of the shop or down a particular aisle within a shop. Tapirary - The art of fashioning a living, fast-growing, naturally full, evergreen shrub into the shape of a South American mammal Word class problems Task A - Esther's Tomcat Below is a poem by Ted Hughes PRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=More about Ted Hughes"called Esther's Tomcat. Daylong this tomcat lies stretched flat As an old rough mat, no mouth and no eyes.Continual wars and wives are whatHave tattered his ears and battered his head. Like a bundle of old rope and ironSleeps till blue dusk. Then reappearHis eyes, green as ringstones: he yawns wide red,Fangs fine as a lady's needle and bright. A tomcat sprang at a mounted knight,Locked round his neck like a trap of hooksWhile the knight rode fighting its clawing and bite.After hundreds of years the stain's there On the stone where he fell, dead of the tom:That was at Barnborough. The tomcat stillGrallochs odd dogs on the quiet,Will take the head clean off your simple pullet. Is unkillable. From the dog's fury,From gunshot fired point-blank he bringsHis skin whole, and wholeFrom owlish moons of bekittenings Among ashcans. He leaps and lightlyWalks upon sleep, his mind on the moonNightly over the round world of menOver the roofs go his eyes and outcry. Ted Hughes TWO ONLINE TASKS SESSION B Uncovering your intuitions about phrases In Topic Two, Session A we explored the four major word-classes in English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. In Session B we are going to look at how these word-classes are the basis for phrases in English grammar. Doing the tasks in this section will show you that we can create whole simple sentences with our four major word-classes. Task A - creating sentences ONLINE TASK Task B - creating sentences (cont.) ONLINE TASK Phrases But if all we could manage to do when we use English was to rearrange sequences of single words into natural possible orders, all of our sentences would be very short and simple indeed. One of the ways we can express more complex ideas and sets of relations is to use phrases based on the major word-classes. To show this, below we put brackets around the grammatical constituents of the sentences we discuss and also emboldened what seems to be the head word (the word to which the other words in the phrases are related, or act as modifiers) of each of the various constituents in sentences 3 and 4. Compare: 1. (Quickly) (Mary) (became) (amorous). 2. (Mary) (kissed) (John) (passionately). with 3. (Very quickly) (the girl) (was becoming) (extremely amorous). 4. (The beautiful woman) (must have kissed) (the hopeful man) (very passionately indeed). Sentence 3 has twice the number of words as sentence 1, but the two sentences appear to share the same overall structure. Similarly, sentence 4 has three times the words of sentence 2, but again the two sentences appear to share the same overall structure. The groups of words which we have bracketed in sentences 3 and 4, then, are examples of what grammarians usually call phrases, and we can now see that it is phrases which combine together in 3 and 4 to make simple sentences. Indeed, it is phrases which are being combined grammatically in sentences 1 and 2 as well - it just that they happen to be one-word phrases. Noun Phrases (NP), Verb Phrases (VP), Adjective Phrases (AdjP) and Adverb Phrases (AdvP) Note also that each of the phrases in sentences 3 and 4 have the words in sentences 1 and 2 as their head words. So sentence 3 consists of: ADVERB PHRASE (AdvP) + NOUN PHRASE (NP) + VERB PHRASE (VP) + ADJECTIVE PHRASE (AdjP) And sentence 4 consists of: NOUN PHRASE (NP) + VERB PHRASE (VP) + NOUN PHRASE (NP) + ADVERB PHRASE (AdvP) Prepositional Phrases In addition to the above four phrase types (NP, VP, AdjP, AdvP), there is one more phrase type, the PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP), which consists of a preposition with a Noun Phrase as its complement (or 'completing phrase') e.g. 'in the cupboard', 'up the stairs', 'round the corner'. Task C - grammatical structure If phrases can consist of more than one word, there can also be grammatical structure inside phrases. We can see this is actually the case by noticing that we have strong intuitions about the natural order for words inside phrases. Working with your partner(s) (a) unscramble the following sets of words into acceptable English phrases, (b) identify the head word and (c) say what sort of phrase each is [noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AdjP), adverb phrase (AdvP), prepositional phrase (PP)]. When you have worked out your answers for each one, click on the relevant set of words to reveal our comments: small very indeed quickly incredibly been have taught might tubby lecturer little the Lancaster first blackboard largest the behind Pen table the the on quill mahogany ONLINE TASK Playing with Phrases Phrases and Titles We have learned from the page on uncovering your intuitions about phrases that phrases are groups of words that go together and which are focused on a headword that the rest of the words in the phrase premodify or postmodify in some way. If you want to learn more about phrases, you can consult the 'Phrases in the Structure of Sentences' page listed on the menu for this session. Task A Make up the title of a novel and discuss it with your partner(s). What sort of phrase is it (NP, VP, AdjP, AdvP, PP)? What sort of phrase do you think it is most normal to have as the title of a book, poem or play? Then compare what you have found with what we say. Task B - Titles ONLINE TASK Task C - Noun Phrase Texts A good place to find interesting NPs is in the 'Lonely Heart' column of your newspaper or mazine. The one below is quite fun: BEAUTIFUL, BOUNTIFUL, buxom blonde, bashful yet bawdy, desires masterful, masculine, magnetic male for friendship, frolic and future. Forward photo and facts. The Subject and Object NPs in the first sentence of this ad (on either side of the Predicator 'desires') are indicated clearly for us by the italicisation. The headword of the Subject NP is 'blonde', a noun derived from an adjective. The three premodifiers are all adjectives which alliterate with the headword, and the conjoined postmodifiers 'bashful' and 'bawdy' continue this 'b'-alliteration. The length of the NP and the alliterative pattern, combined with the unusual semantic relations in 'bashful yet bawdy' give the ad a playful tone, and this is continued in the Object NP. The Object NP has 'male' as the headword and this time all the premodifiers 'm'-alliterate with each other and the headword. The adjectives all have strong 'dominating' connotations, but given that the male is in the Object position and the female in the Subject position in the sentence, the grammar seems to work playfully against these connotations. The last phrase of the first sentence is a PP with a list of three nouns, all 'f'-alliterating, and the last sentence, which consists of a Predicator and an Object also has 'f'-alliteration on the conjoined nouns within the Object NP. NP length, alliteration and odd semantic relations thus give this ad a playful, fun tone. Is the person being serious in looking for a partner? Is she showing us what a clever and fun-loving creature she is? Us lonely hearts can only find out by answering the ad . . . Make up a lonely hearts advertisement for yourself. Discuss it with your neighbour, and if you think you have a good one, send it to us, along with your commentary, so that we can add it to the site. Phrases in the structure of sentences Levels of Grammar We have already noticed that language consists of a variety of levels of organisation (eg phonetics, grammar). Grammar itself is also composed of a number of levels. At the bottom level there are words, which are combined in various ways to create sentences at the top level. Words and sentences are, in fact, related through some intermediate levels of structure (phrases and clauses): Sentences are composed of one or more clauses (or "simple sentences"). Clauses are composed of one or more phrases. Phrases are composed of one or more words. Consider the sentence, 'The students might like this webpage but I hate it'. Using round brackets to indicate the phrases and square brackets to indicate the clauses, we can show the sentence's structure as follows: [ ( The students ) ( might like ) ( this webpage ) ] [ but ( I ) ( hate ) ( it ) ] The sentence thus consists of two coordinated clauses (ie two simple sentences joined together as one sentence). In the first clause each constituent phrase consists of two words, and in the second clause each phrase consists of one words. Word Classes and Phrases So far we have distinguished four major word classes: noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A) and adverb (Adv). We can use these classes to define four of the five kinds of phrases which occur in English sentences: (1) NOUN PHRASE (NP) = a group of words that has a NOUN as its head (ie as its most important word) and which functions together as a noun: a studentthe charming studentthat grotty little Linguistics student with dark hair (2) VERB PHRASE (VP) = a group of words that has a VERB as its head and which functions together as a verb: yawnedhad yawnedhad been yawningmight have been yawning (3) ADJECTIVE PHRASE (AdjP) = a group of words that has an ADJECTIVE as its head and which functions together as an adjective: despicableabsolutely despicableas despicable as possible (4) ADVERB PHRASE (AdvP) = a group of words that has an ADVERB as its head and which functions together as an adverb: quicklytoo quicklymuch too quickly We use the word class preposition to define the fifth kind of phrase, PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP) = A group of words that consists of a preposition followed by a Noun Phrase: in the basketup the roaddown his throat If we now return to the sentence we looked at above, we can see (i) its structure again, this time with the phrase types marked, and (ii) the overall structure: NP VP NP NP VP NP [ ( The students ) ( might like ) ( this webpage ) ] [ but ( I ) ( hate ) ( it ) ] Being creative with noun phrases: Edwin Morgan Offcourse the golden flood the weightless seatthe cabin song the pitch black the growing beard the floating crumb the shining rendezvous the orbit wisecrack the hot spacesuit the smuggled mouth-organ the imaginary somersault the visionary sunrise the turning continents the space debris the golden lifeline the space walk the crawling deltas the camera moon the pitch velvet the rough sleep the crackling headphone the space silence the turning earth the lifeline continents the cabin sunrise the hot flood the shining spacesuit the growing moon the crackling somersault the smuggled orbit the rough moon the visionary rendezvous the weightless 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